Appendix 3: Examples to illustrate steps of participation
Reflecting on what we have learned about the steps of participation (see Figure X below), we can identify that traditionally many scientific projects may have tackled controlled, low risk problems, and then informed citizens about the knowledge they have revealed, in a one-way attempt to keep scientists informed. However, more and more transdisciplinary projects aim to solve more uncontrollable problems, with uncertain risks, by consulting, involving and/or collaborating with specific experts and knowledge holders, for instance in participatory science for fisheries management. As citizen science reaches has peaked the interests of governments and scientists alike, as a way of both collecting information and involving society with more uncontrollable and ambiguous problems, we have the potential to empower citizens in their decision-making potential, if done well. Below are some more specific examples of how the steps could be applied to specific problems through projects that engage citizens in The Mission.
Controllable problem: blue mussel toxins
We will start at the far left of Figure 14 with an example of a controllable problem, which means that there is little conflict regarding the issue at hand and the scope of risk is simple. Take the issue of food safety, like the toxin levels in blue mussels. Arguably, most people agree that they want to be able to eat mussels without toxins, and the science in this matter is settled (the level of toxins safe for human consumption for instance). Moving along the orange arrow, this is categorized as a controllable problem. Next, move up the figure to check the type of input needed. It can be assumed that scientists are relevant actors involved in knowledge production for the advice of toxins in blue mussels. Looking at the levels of citizen participation, it is reasonable to assume that it suffices to inform citizens about the toxin levels. Summing up, if you have a controllable problem with little risk and a general consensus (for example, what toxin levels in blue mussels are safe), one can assume that this is a a) controllable problem with simple risk; b) the type of input needed is knowledge from scientists as relevant actors; and this means that informing citizens is a sufficient step of participation.
Uncontrollable problem: coastal erosion due to sea level rise
Moving right of Figure 14 above, on the continuum of the orange arrow towards uncontrollable problems, the complexity increases when looking up towards the scope of risk (complex, uncertain and ambiguous risk), the type of input and who the relevant actors are. Knowledge input is not enough for these problems; you will also need experience and reflections and potentially even co-production and co-responsibility from a broader set of stakeholders, including citizens.
Take the example of a coastal community where coastal erosion is threatening the safety of those living there, as the beaches are eroding. So, you know this is an uncontrollable problem, but what is the scope of risk (moving up the figure), and consequently, the type of input needed? If the scope of risk is ambiguous, the figure suggests co-production and -responsibility, involving scientists, practice experts, stakeholders and civil society. What step of participation is required - involvement, collaboration or even empowerment? What actors are relevant to include in the process?
In this example, we suggest the following: Knowledge input from science, but also from practice experts such as people with experience-based knowledge about, for example, how this case compares to other coastal areas or how coastal erosion has developed over time. In addition, stakeholders such as house owners should be included in the decision-making process: What type of actions do they prefer as this impacts them directly? For example, would they prefer to be reallocated? Would they prefer to build a concrete barrier protecting their house? Also, civil society should be included in the process, since this will impact them in different ways, for example, access to the coast or economic cost of the process. Importantly, all of these actors are also civil society, including scientists.